parental care

While most anurans lay their eggs in or near water, there is a wide diversity of species that lay their eggs on the ground, under rocks, or in burrows. For these terrestrial-breeding species, identifying the habitat requirements of oviposition sites is particularly useful for conservation and management planning, given that oviposition in anurans is strongly related to the environmental characteristics in which they live. Leiopelma archeyi is an endemic New Zealand frog that reproduces on moist substrates.

Incubation behaviour varies among the different taxa of kiwi. For North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) and little spotted kiwi (A. owenii), only the male incubates the eggs, except for in the first week. Meanwhile, for Okarito brown kiwi (A. mantelli) and the tokoeka (A. australis), incubation is shared by both sexes. In addition, amongst southern tokoeka, family group members can assist with incubation to the extent that breeding males may take no part in incubation at all.